نشریه مطالعات شهری
پیاپی 35 (تابستان 1399)

After the Industrial Revolution, advancement in industry and technology was coupled with population growth, and rural-urban immigration caused the extreme expansion of cities. Moreover, the rapid growth of urbanization in coastal areas and conflict of interest between the stakeholders has imposed extreme ecological pressure on this fragile ecosystem, which indicates the contrast between cities and coastal environments. According to records from the Statistical Centre of Iran, the coastal city of Deylam, Iran, located in Bushehr Province, has been struggling with population and immigration growth during the past six decades. Since the common expansion pattern of coastal cities is linear, where they are distributed along the coast, any attempt against the urban sprawl of coastal cities will clearly benefit the coastal ecosystem. In this research, the urban sprawl of Deylam was investigated for an approximate time span of ten years using quantitative data and a descriptive-analytical method. For this purpose, the prevalence of urban sprawl in the area under investigation was first verified using Shannon’s entropy method. Subsequently, the share of horizontal urban growth, which has faced Deylam with urban sprawl, was specified using the Holdren model. Next, the rate of horizontal growth for the period of investigation was calculated for the first time through application of the Digital Shoreline Analysis System to a study of horizontal urban growth. Eventually, the optimum size of Deylam  for the investigation period was obtained through subtraction of the share of growth calculated by the Holdren model from the total growth of the city, provided then through maps generated using ArcGIS 10. According to the calculations made using Shannon’s entropy, Deylam was expanded extensively at the beginning of the investigation period (i.e., February 16, 2005), undergoing 80.14 percent its maximum possible urban sprawl. Moreover, 62.9 percent of the urban growth of the city in the investigation period resulted from the population growth, based on the Holdren model; therefore, 37.1 percent of the total growth is responsible for the urban sprawl of the city. The results demonstrated that Deylam has experienced growth rates of 19.08 and 23.11 m/year at its northern and southern edges with standard deviations of 4.5 and 4.1, respectively. At the northern edge, the growth rate of 7.08 m/year is due to the urban sprawl, and the 12-m/year rate has resulted from the population growth.  Along the same lines at the southern edge of the city, the growth rate of 8.57 m/year is due to the urban sprawl, and the 14.54-m/year rate has resulted from the population growth. The western and eastern edges of Deylam have not developed during the investigation period, because there have been natural barriers in these parts. Since the presented framework, implemented in this study, is easy to apply, and the procedure of calculation is clear, it may provide contributions in projects involving prevention of urban sprawl.

Like any other construction, a residential complex contains perceptual load for citizens as well as space and physical entity. Visual quality plays an essential role in the formation of this perceptual load. Thus, the perceptual function of a residential complex is dependent to a large extent on visual quality, which is considered qualitative, so the analysis involves plenty of complication. Isovist analyses and sightlines provide an efficient means of analysis and assessment of visual quality through quantitative methods. A review of the theories and studies presented in the field of isovist tools indicates their significance in the analysis of constructed environments based on the visual perception of the audience. This research provides an explanation of the relationship between isovist indicators and spatial experience. On the other hand, concern for visual privacy, which is a major aspect of the visual quality of the environment, is related to overlook. Moreover, whether the residential space is overlooked by surrounding buildings is an essential factor in specification of the interior space quality of a residential unit. The purpose of this study was to provide a method of using isovist tools and sightlines in the process of assessing the visual quality of residential complexes. The research was conducted in the city of Kermanshah, Iran. To this end, residential complexes located in Kermanshah were first typologized and categorized using analyses of form based on a quantitative method. For prevention of the inconsistency of the urban spaces around the complexes from functioning as an interfering factor, the shapes of the obtained types were then homogenized with the normalization method, and the spatial-physical quality of the normalized types was measured using Spacemate. In the next step, visual quality was assessed using isovist tools based on criteria including area, thrust angle, maximum line of sight, and circumscription, and quantitative data were extracted. Finally, the correlation between the data collected from the visual quality measurements and those obtained from the analysis of the spatial-physical quality of the types was examined and analyzed. The results demonstrated that each of the residential complex types involved specific visual quality indicators and sightlines that compared quantitatively and qualitatively with the other types. Moreover, the isovist indicators, which represented the visual quality of the types, correlated with their spatial indicators. This demonstrated the validity of the proposed method in isovist and sightline analysis for assessment of the visual quality of residential complexes, and illustrated the use of the Spacemate charts for that purpose. This research could not assign any of the types absolute or relative superiority in terms of visual quality; however, it analyzed the visual characteristics of each, thereby providing designers with a tool to include the desired visual qualities in their designs. The results of the research can be used potentially in the design of residential complex sites and, consequently, affect the quality of residential plans.

In the second half of the past century, urban development programs, including master and comprehensive plans, have led to extensive intervention in ancient cities, while the construction of streets had already led to substantial changes therein. An examination of the interventions indicates their inefficiency in solving urban problems. At the same time, these interventions have led to new issues, including a lack of integrity in the historic urban areas and their fabrics. In this article, the impact of the new streets in the Sultan Mir Ahmad neighborhood in the city of Kashan, Iran was investigated. The process of urban changes in Kashan was organic until the early 20th century, limited to areas around the heart of the city, the historic bazaar, and the governmentcitadel. Subsequently, the pattern of urban development changed, and construction of straight, long streets was prioritized in line with the growing trend of modernization and the expansion of automobile use. The two streets of Fazel Naraqi and Alavi have been constructed with an interval of about two decades near the Sultan Mir Ahmad neighborhood. One is located to the north of the neighborhood, and the other separates a part of the area from its larger part. This article sought to study how the two streets influence the spatial structure of the Sultan Mir Ahmad neighborhood. For a thorough analysis of the changes that have occurred, the space syntax method was used. Therefore, axial maps of Kashan were provided for three periods: the 1920s, 1960s, and 2010s. Then, the area under investigation was analyzed using integration, depth, and choice as indicators. The results demonstrated an enhancement in global integration as a result of the construction of the Fazel Naraqi and Alavi streets. It should be noted, however, that the impacts of the two streets are different. Alavi Street has had a greater influence due to its proximity to the center of the neighborhood and intersection with its main paths. Subsequently, it was found through an investigation of the local integration and choice indicators that the center of the region had lost its original position, and that Alavi Street had come to be known as the most crowded, most accessible route in the region as the new center of the urban area, with the old heart of the neighborhood turned into a sub-center. In fact, two events have occurred along with the emergence of the development plans and construction of straight streets at the heart of the fabric. Firstly, the construction of streets nearthe neighborhood intersecting its major paths has led to an increase in accessibility and integrity and a decrease in the depth of the urban area. At the same time, however, part of the neighborhood that is adjacent to new communication routes has experienced increased permeability and accessibility. This has caused the inner parts of the neighborhood, including the historic center, to lose their positions in the urban spatial structure and turn into sub-centers.

In most Iranian cities, people regard an urban space as a way to pass through, and these spaces encourage them to flee instead of inviting them to pause and socialize. However, urban spaces are basically where social interaction takes shape, and attempts to improve their quality is one of the most important goals of urban design knowledge in the contemporary era. In the past, sidewalks and squares had a particular position in the central parts of cities. With the expansion of cities and the emergence of cars travelling around them, sidewalks and squares have suffered plenty of damage through the imposed vehicle access networks. Imam Ali Square in the city of Isfahan, Iran is a space that has lost its value and significance throughout history due to the changes in its spatial structure. These changes have resulted in the destruction or reconstruction of spaces that were once considered as parts of the area of the square. Proper access is one of the most important characteristics of a good public space, and it is a main purpose of the placemaking approach to enhance access to urban spaces to improve their quality. According to the principles of placemaking, it is a priority for an urban designer and planner to provide all social classes with access to urban centers and spaces in a variety of ways in order to increase their power of choice with respect to their needs and conditions. This study aimed to evaluate the quality of access as a well-known capability of the placemaking approach. It measured the quality of access at Imam Ali Square through assessment and analysis of six indicators: physical access (connectivity), continuity, accessibility (depth), inclusiveness, easy access to public transportation, and spatial resolution. These indicators were analyzed through field research and descriptive-analytical tools such as SPSS, GIS, and space syntax. According to the findings, easy access to public transportation (scoring 9.6), continuity (scoring 7.02), inclusiveness (scoring 5.4), physical access (scoring 2.42), and resolution (scoring 1.93) exhibited the highest to lowest scores. The final score for the quality of access was 5.41 out of 10, based on the calculation of mean indicator values, which indicated a moderate quality of access to the square as it is close to the median and range of scoring (8-10 for very good, 6-8 for good, 4-6 for moderate, 2-4 for poor, and 1-2 for very poor). Finally, it was inferred that the main problem with the square in terms of quality of access was the lack of concern for resolution, connectivity, and accessibility. It could thus be concluded that the resolution and depth of spaces created following the demolition of old urban structures has dropped due to the decrease in the significance of the surrounding old spaces although they have turned out to be more powerful interconnectors than their surrounding areas. Despite the recent attention paid to Imam Ali Square, the quality of access in the area is still not optimal, and greater concern for the examined indicators is expected in order to turn the square into an urban place.

The evolution in industry in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries led to greater human domination of the planet and the environment. In the field of clean environment, urban parks are regarded as an important element in creation of a sustainable city. They provide opportunities in various areas for instance by improving the environment quality, enabling active and passive entertainment, and creating a beautiful environment. Accordingly, thinkers have considered the strengthening of the relationship between the urban man and the nature as a major way of dealing with the problems of urbanization. Therefore, cities need particular attention today in terms of revival of the urban nature, as presence of the nature in the city, to the necessary extent, and its composition and distribution is a requirement of sustainable development. Evidence from Iran and the area under study in regard to current urban green space planning and design indicates that the idea of ​​ecological design and planning is very weakly treated. Due to the dissatisfaction with the current conditions in the design of urban green spaces as an important part of the city, development of green spaces with high ecological efficiency, significant bioclimatic features in particular, should be considered.

In the ranking provided by the TOPSIS method, Elogli Park exhibits the lowest positive ideal (5.41) and the highest negative ideal (13.45), followed by the Shams, Baghmishe, and Eram parks, in that order. This is because the cli coefficient, the negative ideal divided by the sum of the positive and negative ideals, for Elogli Park (15.93) is higher than those for the other parks, assigning it the highest priority in ecological terms among the parks under investigation. The four studied forest parks were classified by ecological indicators using the electric model. According to the results obtained by this method, Elogli Park was ranked first in ecological terms, and the Shams, Baghmishe, and Eram parks were ranked next. A point to be noted concerned the improper conditions of the Baghmishe and Eram parks, the latter in particular, in terms of the indicators, calling for greater attention to these parks. Based on the data on vegetation density, Shams Park exhibited denser coverage than the other parks, followed by Elogli, Baghmishe, and Eram, in that order. The denser the vegetation, the higher the priority of the park, and the better its ecological conditions. According to the three indicators studied in the GIS environment, Shams Park was in better conditions in ecological terms than the other parks.

The results demonstrated that today’s cities need multi-purpose ecological balancing spaces rather than gardens and lawn. The prioritization of the parks based on cultural criteria indicated that the Eram and Shams parks were in better conditions than Shahgoli and Baghmishe. Physically, Elgoli Park was found to hold the highest priority, followed by Shams, Baghmishe, and Eram, in that order. In environmental terms, the Elgoli, Shams, Baghmishe, and Eram parks were ranked in that order. In terms of access features, Baghmishe and Shams were ranked first, followed by Elgoli and Eram. Finally, Elgoli and Shams were both identified through combination of the maps for all the criteria according to their weights as the best parks in terms of accessibility and cultural, environmental, and physical features. They were followed by Baghmishe Park, and Eram exhibited the lowest score among the parks in terms of the above features.

Tourism is an inclusive, public industry that needs to consider all the sectors of the society regardless of age, race, or gender. Tourism and travel must be accessible to all people, including those with disabilities, the elderly, and children. Therefore, it must be an intrinsic part of any responsible, sustainable tourism policy or strategy. Children are the present and future tourists, who play an important role in destination management. Since they are an important part of the society, it is a requirement to pay attention to the promotion of their creativity, where art can play an important role. Art is a means for creative self-expression. For children, art can be a wonderful emotional outlet that promotes personal reflection, communication skills, and self-esteem. Promotion of creativity and engagement in artistic activities has been shown to stimulate growth in important cognitive areas. On the other hand, tourism has been redirected from cultural tourism, as the second generation, towards creative tourism, as the third generation. Creative tourism has turned away from tangible heritage and sightseeing towards more intangible cultural and authentic experiences. Therefore, it has attracted more attention, as tourists are looking for more authentic, meaningful experiences. Tourist destinations compete to introduce themselves as creative ones in order to meet the needs of travelers, accelerate their economy, and restructure themselves through cultural regeneration. The present paper sought to identify children as emerging markets for creative tourism and specify its key components and to examine the factors effective on child-based creative tourism. Creative tourists are the creators of their own experiences; therefore, they must act as a homogeneous group of producers with creative ideas about their creative experiences. A creative city in the field of crafts, the city of Isfahan, Iran has the potential to become a creative tourism destination based on handicrafts and folk arts, which also seeks to join child-friendly cities. Local authorities believe that tailoring the notion of child-friendly cities with arts and crafts will help Isfahan improve its image, turning the city into an attractive creative destination for children. As playing games and learning are children’s basic expectations from a child-friendly city, they prefer places that afford them opportunities to play and learn actively. Therefore, crafts and folk arts could play an important role in meeting children’s expectations from Isfahan as a creative destination, because the city is a point of reference in Iran and around the world, also nominated the “World City of Handicraft” by the World Crafts Council. As interaction with crafts is acknowledged as an appropriate tool for playing, it can boost children’s creativity, and provide an opportunity for active learning. The main purpose of this study was to obtain a single definition of child-centered creative tourism. The data were collected using snowball sampling and in-depth interviews with 31 tourism, art and handicraft, and children experts. The research used a qualitative method and the thematic theory approach for the identification of the components. The data were categorized based on open, axial, and selective coding. As a result, five distinct components were identified: travel content, children’s needs, creativity, environment, and stakeholders. Each component included several factors that could provide new information on creative tourism for children. This notion and the findings can help destinations to attract children as creative tourists, and their product update will lead to experience and creativity.

With the paradigm change in urban planning in the 1980s, the community has assumed a central role. As a result, the community provides the smallest scale for urban planning in recent theories such as communicative planning theory, collaborative planning theory, multicultural planning, transactive planning, and argumentative planning. Following the changes in urban planning throughout the world ever since 2000, particular attention has been paid to the community in urban planning around Iran, where the concept of community has been controversial. While some Iranian experts support the idea that the notion of neighborhood can be used instead of community, others deploy different conceptions of community in western urban sociology regardless of the social, cultural, economic, and political context of Iranian cities. As a result, neither community-based studies nor urban plans are sufficiently successful. For appropriate application of the notion of community, therefore, it is necessary to find out which conception of community can best be adapted to the Iranian urban planning system. Before this question can be answered, three fundamental inquiries need to be addressed: (1) what are the assumptions behind deployment of community theories in urban planning? (2) what does community mean in the new urban planning paradigm? and (3) what does community mean in the context of Iranian cities? This research was conducted to answer the first question. Thus, the study began with an account of community theories through an examination of accredited documents with an emphasis on urban sociology. The theories reviewed here included Tonnies’s Gemeinschaft and Gessellschaft, Durkheim’s Mechanical and Organic Solidarity, Urban Community of Chicago School, Network Community, Personal Community, Cultural Community, Political Community, Post-modern Community, and Virtual Community. The similarities and differences between the conceptions of community were identified through a variation-finding comparative analysis of the theories. Then, the reasons behind these similarities and differences were derived from both narrative reviews and comparative analyses using qualitative content analysis. According to the comparison results, the similarities and differences were rooted in three major factors: (1) the dominant theoretical bases of each theory, (2) the dominant paradigm and approach of each theory, and (3) the social, economic, cultural, and political changes in the world at the time when the theory had been developed. In other words, each theory gave an account of the community in a specific social, economic, and political context, deploying a particular paradigm and sociological approach; thus, a theory of the community should be used that best fitted both the expert theoretical insight and the context the community is located in. Based on these results, three factors need to be taken into consideration for deployment of the western conceptions of community: (1) the social, cultural, economic, and political context of the target city or neighborhood, (2) the urban planning theory of the research or the plan, and (3) the purposes of the research or plan development. A combination of these three factors could contribute to the process through which the appropriate theory of community could be selected for investigation of the notion in specific contexts.

Following the industrial revolution, the development of urbanization, and the expansion of cities, the oldest form of human movement, i.e. walking, was replaced with the use of automobiles. Therefore, the ease of traverse for pedestrians around cities is less significant now than a century ago. Today, there is a growing interest in enhancement of walking habits in urban areas in order to reduce pollution and other problems associated with motor transportation and to improve public health. Therefore, the issue of walking habits has been included on the agendas of many cities. Highlighting its significance, a large number of studies have been conducted around the world and in Iran over the past few decades to address the issue. The increasing trend in the past decade in the publication of high-quality articles addressing the topic of pedestrians demonstrates its importance and the expert concern for it in the field of urban planning and design. The present article aimed to investigate the issue of pedestrians quantitatively and qualitatively, analyzing and interpreting research published in Iran as high-quality articles and to avoid unnecessary replication in the field. It involved meta-synthesis, using encoding to analyze and interpret previous studies. Thisprovided a valuable opportunity for researchers to access an overview of the existing research activity, which could be very useful and effective in definition of research projects and adoption of new orientations on specific topics. The present paper resulted from an investigation of 80 high-quality articles focused on pedestrians, and sought to draft a vision on pedestrian research by studying the structures and contents of relevant high-quality Persian papers. The results of the research indicated that the volume of pedestrian research has been growing rapidly in the past two decades, with orientations toward walkability and footpaths. In most articles focused excessively on footpaths, however, promotion of walkability in cities to a basic level with the aim of improving quality and meeting the needs of citizens has been neglected. In fact, pedestrian research should be focused not only on expansion of footpaths but also on flexibility in promotion of the basic principles of walkability and, consequently, the desire to walk around cities, of which footpaths are only a part. The most important issues found through a review of the existing pedestrian studies include the unnecessary replication of the contents of pedestrian research, repetitive selection of case studies, application of inconsistent terminology, and lack of concern for particular target groups including children, women, and the disabled. The review also indicated that the majority of the studies had been conducted only at the micro-scale (sidewalk-street), and no mention was found of other types of space used for pedestrians, such as neighborhoods. Many articles have dealt with the issue of pedestrians in isolation, while pedestrian studies are part of the research on transportation systems, and need to be linked to investigations of other modes of transportation. Finally, the most common topics associated with the issue of pedestrians were extracted, including activity-behavior, vision and perspective, social issues, environmental qualities, safety and security, health, and tourism. Thus, future research will need to disregard repetitive topics and focus instead on other relevant, influential issues in the area.

Conflicts between urban regeneration stakeholders prevent full utilization of their participation capacities in areas with urban decline, and plans have not been fully realized as a result of conflicts since participation is a key element in urban regeneration. The main purpose of this study was to present the conflict management model of urban regeneration stakeholders in Iran based on institutional theory and collaborative governance. In a case study, the Hemmat-abad neighborhood in the city of Isfahan, Iran was considered according to the history of several measures taken and plans proposed for renovation and improvement of the distressed areas and the failure of the projects so far. Stakeholder conflict management can balance disagreements and conflicts between stakeholders of urban regeneration and lead to interaction, partnership, and collaboration among them, providing creativity and effectiveness and improving the implementation processes of urban regeneration projects. This article aimed to present a model for conflict management of urban regeneration stakeholders in Iran based on institutional theory and collaborative governance using the method of qualitative content analysis for the Hemmat-abad neighborhood. The components of the proposed conceptual model were presented through an investigation of the foundations of institutional theory and basic concepts including urban regeneration, stakeholder conflict management, and collaborative governance. Then, the proposed model was tested and analyzed for the Hemmat-abad neighborhood using the method of qualitative content analysis. For this purpose, the transcripts of the interviews made with the key stakeholders and the documents on reconstruction of the neighborhood were used after identification of the key stakeholders and their main conflicts. Finally, the conflict management model of urban regeneration stakeholders in regard to Hemmat-abad was derived. For presentation of the proposed model, the main stakeholders were classified using the power-interest matrix. After the identification of the key stakeholders, the types of conflict (cognitive conflicts, conflicts of objectives or interests, normative conflicts, and conflicts of relationships) between them were specified, along with the status of each in the intervention management process for regeneration of the Hemmat-abad neighborhood, to suit different conflict management styles (competition, collaboration, compromise, and avoidance). According to this model for Hemmat-abad, identified conflicts in accordance with the collaborative style held the highest priority to enter the proposed management model due to the lack of experience in the competition management strategy. A collaboration cycle could thus be established at the prescribed stage. In this model, three collaborative processes were used, including involvement and principled participation, capacity for joint action, and shared motivation using conflict resolution techniques, face-to-face dialogue in particular. In this case, dialogue was utilized as negotiation in order to establish the four components of trust-building, legitimacy, understanding, and common commitment with respect to the subject of conflict, leading to consensus between the conflicting parties. Thus, decision-making for achievement of a win-win situation means to meet the demands and expectations of both parties of the conflict. With effective conflict management between stakeholders, the proposed model was found to play an effective role in capacity-building and enhancement of the efficiency of the Hemmat-abad neighborhood renovation plan.

The analysis of the casual relationship between built environments and travel behavior has been a key issue in the literature on transportation and planning. Residential self-selection is an issue that requires greater elaboration in investigations of built environments and travel behavior. It suggests that people choose their neighborhoods according to their travel attitudes and preferences. In other words, people who prefer to walk more decide to reside in walkable neighborhoods. Therefore, people walk more because they like to walk. Hence, residential self-selection, which refers to people’s propensity to choose where to live, is based on their travel attitudes. It is therefore essential to explore the impacts of built environments on travel behavior given the roles of travel attitudes, neighborhood preferences, and socio-demographic characteristics in explanation of the relationship. In this paper, structural equation modeling was applied to specify the extent to which the observed patterns of travel behavior could be attributed to the residential built environment, through investigation of the relationship between the built environment and the frequency of non-work travel involving walks in three neighborhoods with different land development patterns in Tehran, Iran. With an identification of the direct and indirect impacts of the factors effective on travel behavior, the following hypotheses were made. 1) If a built-environment element affects travel behavior or another factor directly or indirectly, it has a causal relationship with travel behavior. 2) If the travel attitudes or neighborhood preferences affect the built environment, self-selection could be understood as confounding the casual relationship between the built environment and travel behavior. For testing the above hypotheses, data were collected from 273 questionnaires distributed in three neighborhoods: Moniriye (as a traditional neighborhood), Golestan (as an automobile-oriented neighborhood), and Bime (as a conventional neighborhood). Using exploratory factor analysis, the aspects of built environments were extracted as follows: residential environment characteristics, highway accessibility, public transport accessibility, destination diversity and accessibility, density, and residence preferences. The latter refers to residents’ accessibility preferences/priorities if they wish to move to a new neighborhood. Moreover, the factors effective on travel attitudes, as elicited by exploratory factor analysis, were found to include favoring means of transport other than private cars, dependent on private cars, reducing travel, and favoring private cars. After the specification of the domains of built environment, accessibility preferences/priorities, and travel attitudes, structural equation modeling was applied to identify the relative and casual relationships between the built environment and travel behavior in the three neighborhoods. The evidence from the car-oriented and conventional neighborhoods indicated the causality of the relationship between the built environment and travel behavior. In the traditional neighborhood, however, travel attitudes and neighborhood preferences were found to influence travel behavior directly and indirectly. Nevertheless, the overall comparative assessment of the direct/indirect impacts on travel behavior in the three examined neighborhoods demonstrated that the built environment elements had casual effects on the travel behavior involving walks. For instance, destination diversity and accessibility had direct and indirect impacts on travel behavior in all the three neighborhoods. It could be concluded that enhancement of diversity and public transport accessibility and reduction of highway accessibility played more prominent roles in non-motorized travel behavior. If cities adopt land use policies offering more options to utilize non-motorized means of transport, therefore, many residents would tend to welcome the idea.